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Natural disasters in Asia can cause severe damage in localised areas.  This can be seen in Indonesia, a country prone to both volcanic eruption and forest fires.  Natural disasters involving volcanic eruption and forest fires have the ability to irreparably damage plant and animal ecosystems and also human social environments.  Minimising the impact of these disasters is vital in regions hosting endangered plant and animal species.  This essay seeks to explore the impact of forest fires and volcanic eruption on the ecological and social environment.  While governments may not be able to prevent natural disasters, this essay will seek to show that long-term damage to ecological and social environments may be minimised through developing natural disaster monitoring, management and response strategies.

Indonesia has suffered, and is at risk of suffering, severe damage to the environment due to volcanic eruption and forest fires.  Rare plant and animal species risk possible extinction in areas prone to these natural disasters.  According to the University of South Dakota’s Volcano World web site, 10,000 people were killed in the 1815 Tambora eruption in Indonesia.  The environmental impact of the eruption caused crop loss and a famine that killed a further 80,000 people.  The eruption of the island of Krakatoa in 1883, and the tsunami that followed, caused the deaths of 50,000 people (Volcano World, 2002).  Indonesia has 52 active volcanos.  The reoccurring forest fires of Kalimantan, caused by a complex combination of natural and human factors, have caused the destruction of over 3 million hectares of lowland tropical rain forest, swamp and peat forest (Goldammer & Seibert cited by Chapman & Baker, 1995, p.101).  Studies into the environmental consequences of volcanic eruption illustrate the devastating effect they can have on localised areas.  For example, in the Mount Saint Helens eruption (USA), 150 square miles of forest was destroyed and pyroclastic flows from the crater sterilised 6 square miles of forest with temperatures nearing 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (Frenzen, 1999).  Over 7,000 game animals, 12 million fish and millions of birds and small mammals were lost in the Mount Saint Helen’s eruption.  Frenzen (1999) estimates that it will take between 200 and 500 years before for plant and animal life is restored to be to pre-eruption levels.   Fires can also have a devastating effect on immense tracts of forested land.  The destruction of the forest by fire subjects these lands, especially on water sheds, to severe soil erosion (Chapman and Baker. 1995 p.99).  Indonesia has over 140 threatened mammal species, 113 threatened bird species and 264 threatened plant species (World Bank, 2001).  Volcanic eruption and forest fire could potentially exterminate species of rare plant and animal life, with a resultant loss to the world gene pool. 

Volcanic eruption and forest fires as we have seen, threaten plant and animal habitats, but they also threaten human social environments.  Unfortunately it is possible for poorly planned ‘humanitarian’ post-disaster responses to cause long-term damage to previously sustainable human social environments.  Many Asian cultures have developed, over generations, sustainable relationships with their environment.  Local custom and village law may regulate human interaction with the forest and the land in a way that is difficult for a western mind to understand.  Many Asian cultures attribute spiritual value to land and the environment and gain a sense of their history and identity from the land.  The president of the Asian Development Bank in an address to a workshop on indigenous peoples and poverty reduction, said

Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities have very unique cultures and traditions, with their own languages, and are striving today for development that respects their identity, values and institutions. Their distinct cultures can be intimately linked to traditional forms of land tenure and resource management (Chino, 2001)

A study on the effects of relocation on 4000 evacuees, following a volcanic eruption on the Indonesian island of Nila, shows that relocation of people following a natural disaster can sometimes create a long term social disaster.   Although these residents resisted resettlement amidst claims of that the Indonesian government had economic motives for such a large scale evacuation, Pannell’s (1999) study is helpful in understanding some of the complex issues in post disaster responses.  While the Indonesian Government met the basic needs of the evacuees generously, it appears that those involved in planning the evacuation and subsequent resettlement, did not take into account the social and cultural values which make up the islanders unique identity.   Villagers were allocated identical accommodation based upon alphabetised lists rather than attempting to preserve the evacuee’s sense of social order.  The evacuees, primarily fishermen, were allocated land away from the ocean which fundamentally changed their way of life and diet.  The Nila Islanders used to say ‘you have not had a meal if you have not eaten fish’ (Pannel, 1999).    Nila islanders became recipients of government support and lost their environmentally sustainable village lifestyle and strong cultural identity.  While older islanders make an annual journey back to ancestral islands, their more modern offspring have their eyes set on the ‘big city’ provincial capital.  Culturally the evacuees may be difficult to distinguish from other transmigrants within a generation.

Recommendations to minimise serious environmental damage and the loss of human life during volcanic eruptions and forest fires, should include the deploying of appropriate early warning systems, developing disaster response strategies and training emergency response teams.  Seismic monitoring is one valuable early warning tool that could be introduced to minimise some of the impact of a volcanic eruption.  Kalimantan’s forest fire problem however, requires the creation of a complete fire prevention and fire fighting infrastructure.  Significant international funding is being made available to accomplish this.  Indonesia’s 14,000 fire-fighters (OCHA, 1998) could be augmented by recruiting local volunteer fire brigades.  This would assist in fire control as well as creating a sense of ownership of the forest fire problem at the local level.  An increased deployment of Forest Rangers, currently Indonesia has 9,700 Forest Rangers but needs at least 14,000 according to Suhariyanto and Pernama (2001, p.3), could take on responsibility for fire spotting as well as educating communities in fire safe agricultural methods.   It should also be noted that unless affected communities are involved in designing pre and post disaster strategies, attempts at humanitarian or environmental aide may be viewed with suspicion and potentially resisted.  As rare flora and fauna is highly susceptible to severe damage from volcanic eruption and forest fire, surveys could be made of ‘at risk’ areas in order to identify plant species that would benefit from a preservation strategy, perhaps including the use of seed banks.  Animal species ‘at risk’ may be introduced to new areas in order to ensure their preservation in the event of natural disaster.

Indonesia’s forests, rare plant and animal species and habitats are at risk from natural disasters such as volcanic eruption and forests fires.  Strategies need to be designed and implemented in order to ensure that this valuable biodiversity is not lost in the event of natural disaster.  Early warning strategies may assist disaster response personnel to quickly implement pre-planned strategies to minimise the loss of environmental habitats and human life in the event of a natural disaster.  While it is encouraging that many international organisations appear willing to assist in designing disaster response strategies and infrastructure, strategies must also be negotiated at a local, not just national or international level.  Local communities need to be part of the consultation process in order to gain a sense of ownership of the disaster prevention and response strategies.  Unless local communities can see local benefit in supporting these strategies, the strategies, as good as they may seem on paper, may well fail to produce the results hoped for by international conferences and workshops. Minimising the effects of natural disasters upon the human social environment might only be attained by including the views of local peoples who have developed environmentally sustainable lifestyles. Strategies for disaster prevention and post disaster response should take into account the values and culture of local communities as well as protecting valuable biodiversity and fragile habitats.

Bibliography

Chino T, 25 October 2001, Internet.  Asia Development Bank President addresses the Regional Workshop on Indigenous Peoples and Poverty Reduction.  Online.  Internet.        1 September 2002.   Available from URL http://www.adb.org/Documents/Speeches/2001/ms2001073.asp

Chapman, G & Baker K. 1995, The Changing Geography of Asia, Routledge, New York.

Frenzen, P., 1999, Biological Responses to the 1980 Eruptions of Mount St. Helens.  Online. Internet.    29 August 2002.  Available from URL http://www.fs.fed.us/gpnf/mshnvm/research/faq.htm#plant recovery 

Goldammer, J. G., and Siebert, B. 1990, ‘The impact of droughts and forest fires on tropical lowland rain forests in East Kalimantan’ in Goldammer, J. G. (ed) Fire in Tropical Biota, Ecological Studies 1984, Berlin, Springer cited in The Changing Geography of Asia, Chapman, G & Baker K. 1995, Routledge, New York.

Suhariyanto, W. & Pernama, B.  11 September 2001, Law Enforcement and Forest Protection in Indonesia.  Online. Internet. 1 September 2002.  Available from URL

http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/eap/eap.nsf/Attachments/FLEG_S1-3/$File/1+3+Boen+Purnama+Speech+-+GOI.pdf

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 30 April  1998.  Online. Internet.   30 August 2002.  Available from URL  http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/files/RWDomino.nsf/SearchResults/734529FF6F1B6E39C125662E004AD866?OpenDocument.

University of North Dakota, 2002, Volcano World.  Online. Internet.  29 August 2002. Available from URL http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/sorted_by_country.html 

World Bank, 2001, World Development Indicators: Deforestation and Biodiversity.  Online. Internet.    29 August 2002.  Available from URL  http://www.worldbank.org/data/wdi2001/pdfs/tab3_4.pdf

Appendix 1

Photograph of the eruption of Mt St Helens in the Austin Post, May 1980

Smith, V. May 1998, the Many Faces of Mount Saint Helens, Online. Internet.  1 September 2002. This page last updated August 14, 2002. Available from URL http://www.olywa.net/radu/valerie/StHelens.html 

 Appendix 2

Opening Address by Tadao Chino
President Asian Development Bank

Regional Workshop on "Indigenous Peoples and Poverty Reduction"

ADB Headquarters, Mandaluyong City
25 October 2001

Your Excellency, Ambassador Howard Dee (Representative of the President of the Philippines); Your Excellency, Ly Thuch (Minister of Rural Development, Cambodia); Your Excellency, Yusril Ihza Mahendra (Minister of Justice and Human Rights, Indonesia); Your Excellency, Tran Luu Hai (Vice Chairman, Commission for Ethnic Minorities and Mountainous Areas, Vietnam); Your Excellency, Evelyn Dunuan (Chair, National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, Philippines); other distinguished Government officials, and representatives of indigenous and ethnic minority organizations; representatives of the World Bank, United Nations and other international organizations; distinguished guests and participants; ladies and gentlemen.

It is a great pleasure to welcome you here today. The subject of this workshop, Indigenous Peoples and Poverty Reduction, is one to which I personally attach great importance.

The workshop is the final public event of a Regional Technical Assistance, or Regional TA, that the Asian Development Bank has been supporting this year on indigenous peoples, ethnic minorities and poverty reduction in Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Viet Nam. The Regional TA has had two main objectives: first, to strengthen national capacities in this area; and second, to improve the quality of ADB's interventions as they affect indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities.

And this workshop has its own very specific objective, to approve a Regional Action Plan that can guide future national approaches to this issue throughout the South-East Asian region, and also guide future assistance programs offered by international organizations.

Poverty reduction, as most of you know, is ADB's overarching objective. In 1999, ADB adopted its Poverty Reduction Strategy which places special emphasis on the rights and responsibilities of indigenous peoples. It also recognizes that ethnic minorities have special social development needs such as special education curricula, self-managed health care, and other services.

At ADB, our interventions are increasingly reaching out to the poorest groups of society. There is growing evidence that in the South-East Asian region, as in other parts of the world, indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities often bear the greatest burden of poverty. This is one reason why a growing proportion of our lending and technical assistance activities is being directed at the areas where these vulnerable groups are located. Specific examples include our recent natural resources management project in Viet Nam's Central Highlands, our community empowerment projects in the Indonesian islands of Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and a community development project now under preparation in the Philippine island of Mindanao.

I am pleased to say that indigenous peoples and ethnic minority concerns are also being addressed in Poverty Partnership Agreements between ADB and governments of the region. Just two weeks ago, together with President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, I witnessed the signing of such an agreement with the Philippines. We pledged support to Government efforts to promote indigenous peoples' rights, and to distribute ancestral domain claims to indigenous peoples.

Combating the poverty faced by indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities poses complex challenges for governments. Like all other population groups, indigenous peoples should benefit from the process of development. They need incomes, credit and financial assistance, marketing opportunities, production skills, and access to basic social services such as health and education. However, their location in forests, mountains and other remote areas often deprives them of access to such services. Special and targeted programs may be needed for their economic and social upliftment.

Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities have very unique cultures and traditions, with their own languages, and are striving today for development that respects their identity, values and institutions. Their distinct cultures can be intimately linked to traditional forms of land tenure and resource management. These may be under threat, as investment projects move into remote regions inhabited by them. Indigenous peoples are most often affected through dispossession from their traditional lands and resources, as well as by a lack of access to basic infrastructure and services.

Such dilemmas pose difficult challenges for all actors concerned with indigenous peoples and poverty, national and international, including ADB. How can the balance be struck between respect for indigenous cultures and mainstreaming processes which combat social exclusion, break down the barriers of discrimination, and seek improved access for marginalized groups to national economic benefits?

Three years ago in 1998, ADB adopted its first-ever Policy on Indigenous Peoples. It is a key policy instrument for ADB operations, as they affect indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities. It calls for safeguards such as an Indigenous Peoples Development Plan, whenever a project might have a potentially adverse effect on vulnerable groups. It also identifies key issues that should be considered as ADB operations address indigenous peoples' matters, including: legal recognition of ancestral domain, and the traditional rights of indigenous peoples over land and resources; the legitimacy of indigenous social and legal institutions; and recognition of the right of indigenous peoples to direct the course of their own development and change.

The present Regional TA is the first major regional initiative undertaken by ADB since the adoption of the Policy on Indigenous Peoples. The Regional TA highlighted the important role of governments in recognizing and addressing the needs of indigenous peoples. Some governments are only now becoming aware of the possible correlation between ethnicity and poverty. The TA's relevance has been amply recognized by all participating governments, and in each country a Government focal agency has supported the TA, and held a national workshop.

The importance of indigenous peoples in Asia can hardly be overestimated. The poverty concerns of vulnerable ethnic minorities need to be addressed not only on ethical grounds, but also increasingly on security grounds and out of the concerns for national harmony and stability. Disputes over land and resource rights can spill over to create serious cross-border tensions, and promote ethnically based conflicts, which can, in turn, damage national prosperity and stability.

There is still much to be done to better understand how the economic and livelihood strategies of indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities relate to those of mainstream society. The main finding of this TA, so far, is that the poverty indicators for these vulnerable groups portray serious imbalances. Indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities are very often disproportionately poor, and the poverty gap between them and mainstream society may also be growing. But another important finding is that there are also great opportunities to build national prosperity and effective governance on ethnic diversity, and thereby to prepare the grounds for more inclusive development in all countries.

The main aim of this workshop, I reiterate, is to agree on some basic principles and approaches for national and international action to promote more inclusive development. In some countries, the immediate priority may be reforming the legal and policy framework. I am pleased, for example, that ADB was able to work with the Royal Government of Cambodia, in preparing an indigenous peoples' chapter in its new land law adopted this year. In other countries, the need may be for better consultation mechanisms to ensure informed participation by indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities in the projects and programs that affect them. Other countries may now be ready to embark on concrete steps to title ancestral lands. Governments may also consider more targeted approaches to address the specific needs of these peoples in development and poverty reduction programs.

Finally, your recommendations to ADB itself are welcomed. Our policy framework is in place. We are keen to learn how this can be translated into more effective programs of poverty reduction for indigenous peoples. We are continually working to strengthen our expertise on indigenous and ethnic minority issues in our overall operational work, and to ensure that these concerns are incorporated in country strategies, programs and projects. We are also working to improve our cooperation with other international organizations, drawing on their expertise in this area. The more specific that your proposals can be, the more impact this workshop can be expected to have on our future approaches and operations. So I wish you every success, and look forward to your action plan with eager anticipation.

Thank you.

Chino, T. 25 October 2001, Asia Development Bank: Speech to the Regional Workshop on Indigenous Peoples and Poverty Reduction. Online.  Internet, Accessed 1 September 2002.  Available from URL http://www.adb.org/Documents/Speeches/2001/ms2001073.asp

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